Orthostat, The Mound of the Hostages (Hill of Tara, Ireland)

• An Forradh
• Tech Cormaic
• Raith na Senad
• Fothadh Graine
• Raith Chailchon
• Raith Laoghaire
• The monument below Raith Laoghaire, listed on the Plan of Tara as "Site of Circle"
• The two mounds located west of Raith na Rig, the lower one of which is listed on the Plan of Tara as "Site of King Cormaic's Watchers"
• The single line of monuments east of Raith na Rig
• The double line of monuments northeast of Raith na Senad

1. The reason the orthostat is not oriented with the monuments, i.e. vertically, is that it was originally a standing stone located somewhere within Raith na Rig. The cup and ring carved on the rear of the orthostat testify to that. (Note: Carving the symbols into the stone, rather than as reliefs, would have been far less time consuming for the artists, as apposed to chipping away everything not part of the monuments. This would also have made it much simpler to add or perhaps alter symbols as the site evolved.)
   
   
2. The location of the monuments depicted on the orthostat vary slightly from the site maps, which is due to one or both of the following:
   
   a) The surface area on which to carve the monuments was limited.
   
   b) The carvings were done over a significant period of time, by various artists. The use of "conventional plan and section drawings" is "a time consuming, highly subjective method that has a low level of accuracy and a high level of error." The Discovery Programme
   
   
3. In 1952-53 when Professor Sean P. O'Riordain excavated Raith na Senad, he identified in the pre-earthworks activity "a series of palisade trenches and post-holes representing concentric enclosures with concentric pairs of free standing posts thought to have been part of a large structure." synopsis of Professor O'Riordain's excavation, from "Tara, An Archaeological Survey" by Dr. Conor Newman (see plan drawing) A National Roads Authority report states, "At Raith na Senad on the Hill of Tara, the second phase [consisted] of a series of palisaded enclosures c.16m and 25m in diameter" located within a larger enclosure, consisting of a "huge temple, [henge] once surrounded by about 300 huge posts" (see geo-survey and Model of Tara) During this phase "the area was used as a burial ground. Nine burials (six inhumations, both crouched and extended and three cremations) were uncovered" Dr. Newman
   
   
4. The henge at Tara "probably dates from 2500 to 2300 BC and still had a big physical presence even after the posts were taken out or rotted." Dr. Newman The reason it still had a big physical presence was because the area remained in use as a burial site.
   
   The shape of Raith na Senad as it's depicted on the orthostat, looks different than it does today. Its initial earthen structures consisted of a barrow, an oval barrow and double court tomb. (see engraving) The style of the latter in this case "has a half-court at each end of the monument" "built facing away from each other" "both galleries would have been covered by the same cairn". They "sometimes share the same rear stone" though in view of the V-shaped gap between the tombs due to silting, that's unlikely. see photo, top of page) "more often there is some distance between them, ranging from one to ten metres." Megalithomania.com
   
   Excavation of the earthworks activity by Professor O'Riordain revealed "a barrow with traces of an enclosing bank with V-sectioned fosse... situated between ramparts 2 and 3" "The barrow had three phases of construction; the first consisted of a 16m in diameter barrow with surrounding bank and V-sectioned fosse, with associated cremation burials and one later crouched inhumation." Dr. Newman The "barrow" Professor O'Riordain excavated, was actually the forecourt of the northwest facing court tomb which had silted in, leaving "traces of an enclosing bank". Remains of both forecourts are still visible, as well as the "arm" which projects from the southeast facing tomb. (see inserts and overlays) Considering the shape of the "arm", which is not a feature of court tombs, and as seen on the engraving is not connected to the tomb, it appears to be an oval barrow. "a mound of earth and/or stones of roughly elliptical plan covering or containing one or more human burials and/or other ceremonially placed deposits, sometimes partly or wholly surrounded by a ditch from which the material to build the mound was derived." Monuments Protection Programme
   
   During the 3rd phase of the earthworks activity identified by Professor O'Riordain, a "quadri-vallate enclosure was also constructed". Dr. Newman In other words, Raith na Senad evolved into an embanked ring ditch. "A monument comprising an irregularly circular enclosing ditch, interrupted by several causeways, surrounding a central circular area used for funerary activities, often concealed originally beneath an earthen mound." The Discovery Programme (see photos)
   
   "ring ditches... were later used as defence mechanisms" Castles.me.uk Professor O'Riordain discovered a 4th rampart surrounding Raith na Senad, though "nothing of the fourth is visible on the surface" Dr. Newman That alone would not have offered much in the way of defense, as an enemy would only have had to breach that, before reaching the numerous causeways in ramparts 1-3. Why it did not survive, may be due to the fact that it was no longer important to the overall nature of the site, or was too time consuming to maintain. (see item 7,B) All things considered, it's unlikely the monument ever served as a defensive structure. Professor O'Riordain refers to the area of the double court tomb as the "causeway", however, it's unlike those associated with ring ditches. If this were a new design element, then it stands to reason that it would have been employed in similar monuments. The concave appearance in the middle of the "causeway" is due to the cairn collapsing into the chambers. (see photo, top of page)
   
   Based on "Associated Roman material of second to fourth century date indicates that... [Raith na Senad] is pre-Christian." The Discovery Programme However, there's no evidence the artifacts are associated with its construction. Moreover, Professor O'Riordain unearthed a bronze knife guard in the pre-earthworks period and bronze pins during the earthworks phase. Although bronze was commonly in use during the Early Iron Age, 500 BC, the henge dates to 3030 - 2190 BC, (see item 17) so the bronze artifacts likely date to the Early Bronze Age.
   
   Assuming for the purposes of argument that the henge and associated 16m and 25m enclosures were constructed between 2500 to 2300 BC, that all three fell into disuse and were torn down a few hundred years later, and that the ramparts of Raith na Senad are pre-Christian, this would mean that one of two highly improbable scenarios occurred.
   
   a) That roughly 2,000 years later the "16m barrow" was constructed exactly where the 16m enclosure once stood, which by pure coincidence is the exact location of the entrance to the "causeway". That by coincidence the 25m mound within Raith na Senad was constructed in the center of where the 25m enclosure once stood. Then by chance, the ramparts were constructed where the concentric palisaded structures had stood. On top of which, all the above just so happened to be built in the center of where the henge was once located.
   
   b) That some physical evidence of the henge's inner structures survived for roughly 2,000 years in the landscape, and were used as a blueprint in constructing Raith na Senad.
   
   The logical explanation is that the 25m enclosure was removed and the mound within enlarged for the purpose of additional burials, resulting in the 25m barrow we see today. Sometime later, the 16m enclosure was removed and the burial site within incorporated into the northwest facing forecourt of the double court tomb. This parallels the discovery at the entrance to Duma na nGiall, where "Two burials, consisting of the cremated remains of some numbers of individuals, were placed in pots outside the passage before the stone cairn was constructed." The Discovery Programme Later still, the oval barrow was constructed. Sometime after the orthostat was reused in the passageway of Duma na nGiall, the outer palisaded structures were removed and the ramparts constructed in their place, incorporating the double court tomb, 25m barrow and oval barrow into Raith na Senad's current design. "At Tara there are at least seven cases where barrows have been incorporated into... later monuments"  The Discovery Programme
   
   
5. Given the location of the henge, (see geo-survey) the ring barrow An Forradh could have been constructed prior to the henge falling into disuse and being removed. "Stone circles and standing-stones are usually associated with the Bronze Age and the latter are often found within ring-barrows." Tom Fanning "Ancient Monuments of the Midlands" Just beneath Raith Laoghaire is a stone circle, (see engraving, Map of Tara and Plan of Tara) and located somewhere within Raith na Rig were the standing stones Lia Fail and the orthostat. However, considering the elongated shape of the mound within An Forradh today, just as it is on the orthostat, it's possible it was originally an oval barrow, with its six ramparts added over time.
   
   As cited in item 4, ring ditches were later used as defensive structures, so it's logical that a ring barrow would also have been employed in such a manner. Evidence of this are the palisades erected within its ramparts. (see photo and insert of plan drawing) The opening in the 6th rampart, like the ramparts of Fothadh Graine and Raith Chailchon, would seem to indicate there was a drop-off in that area. (see engraving and item 10) "Multivallate: more than one layer of defensive earthworks, outer works might not be complete circuits, but defend the weakest approaches; typically the inner circuit is original, with outer circuits added later." Wikipedia
   
   
6. As seen on the engraving, An Forradh consisted of six ramparts. Initially, I identified those as being:
   
   a) Raith na Rig's two ramparts, as described by Dr. George Petrie in his 1837 essay "On the History and Antiquities of Tara Hill"  and by P.W. Joyce, LL.D. in his book "A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland" Chapter XVI (5) "The circumvallation [of Raith na Rig] can still be traced all round; and consisted originally of two walls or parapets with a deep ditch between." By the time Professor O'Riordain excavated the area, Raith na Rig's inner rampart had been erased from the landscape due to agriculture.
   
   b) An enclosure described by Dr. Newman. "A host of other interesting features has also come to light, such as the continuation (near the south end of the surveyed area) of a previously identified enclosure which, if projected, appears to surround the Forradh and Tech Cormaic, and also reflects the curvature of Raith na Rig." PAST Newsletter #33 (1999) (see geo-survey and Model of Tara)
   
   c)  An Forradh's two existing ramparts.
   
   d)  An enclosure concealed within An Forradh's mound.
   
   The foregoing would seem to account for all six ramparts. However, based on a recently obtained topographical gradient map, courtesy of The Discovery Programme, An Forradh originally consisted not of two ramparts and a barrow, but six ramparts and a barrow. (see insert of engraving and topo grad map) (Note: interpretation of the image is solely the work of the author) The evidence shows that the fosses between An Forradh's 4th rampart and barrow were infilled. As such, Raith na Rig's ramparts and the enclosure seen on the geo-survey are enclosures 7, 8 and 9. The 7th enclosure, which was only recently revealed by geo-survey, was probably a timber henge, which in view of its location, likely predates the one surrounding Raith na Senad. (see item 19, Phase 1) Given the evidence, which in all fairness to Dr. Petrie he was unaware of in 1837 when he identified the monuments at Tara, Raith na Rig may in fact be the 6th rampart seen on the engraving, An Forradh's outer rampart.
   
   The addition of the causeway to An Forradh, and the ramparts and causeway to Tech Cormaic, likely took place prior to the construction of Duma na nGiall, making the orthostat obsolete. This pattern of concentric ramparts and causeways is depicted in rock art throughout Ireland, England, Scotland, Wales and other parts of Western Europe. (see photos) So in all likelihood, there's at least one carved stone within the Tara complex with the same symbols which has yet to be discovered. "Recent research suggests that many [carvings] are associated with the fringes of uplands and with important paths of access between lower and higher ground. On occasion, they seem to line the route towards important monument complexes." GardWeb Additionally, the causeways within An Forradh and Tech Cormaic, appear to have the same alignment as the passageway within Duma na nGiall.
   
   
7. As the evidence shows, An Forradh and Tech Cormaic went from being ceremonial monuments to sites of habitation. Why they evolved into what we see today, is due to one or both of the following:
   
   a) "This emphasis on status in the function of the ringfort, over that of defense would explain a number of defensive weaknesses of the ringfort. Banks, or multiples of them would not appear to offer the best return to their builders for their defensive value" such as "the general lack of an ability to fight out from the ringforts" Wikipedia Having discovered this, An Forradh and Tech Cormaic underwent a major remodeling, i.e. from concentric ramparts with causeways, to what we see in the landscape today. (see topo grad map, also photo and insert of plan drawing)
   
   b) That the time and man power necessary to maintain that many ramparts would have been enormous. "little effort would appear to have been expended on up keeping the ditches and fosses in order to prevent decay and silting" Wikipedia
   
   
8. During his excavation, Professor O'Riordain revealed a ditch within Raith na Rig "Reaching a depth of up to 3m and with the underlying bedrock stepped, it challenges the generally accepted non-defensive nature of "Royal Sites" with their internal ditches." PAST Newsletter #28 (1998) Helen Roche, Director Tara Project Based on the evidence, it's the two ramparts and palisaded enclosures that challenge the "non-defensive nature" of the monument. The ditch was nothing more than the V-sectioned fosse between Raith na Rig's ramparts.
   
   "The earliest recognised evidence [of] (O'Riordain's black layer), was found and confirmed to be sealed beneath the bank of the enclosure. Excavation revealed that the source of this black, charcoal-rich layer was debris from a bowl furnace. Throughout the layer and especially around the immediate area of the furnace, quantities of iron slag, tuyre and crucible fragments, some with bronze residue, bronze stems and droplets, were recovered, as well as small iron objects" Helen Roche "Therefore, the bank was, it seems, constructed sometime after the introduction of iron." The Discovery Programme While bronze was in use during the Early Iron Age, the bronze detritus could just as easily date to the Early or Middle Bronze Age.
   
   a) The same furnace, or at least the same area, would have been used for making both metals.
   
   b) After a decade or two of silting, which covered the bronze detritus with several inches of soil, the rampart would be in need of repair, so the soil would have been dragged back onto the embankment.
   
   c) The above cycle would have been repeated during the time the furnace, or area, was used for making iron, only this time the silt would also contain bronze detritus. At that point, when the rampart was repaired, both the bronze and iron debris would have been mixed together.
   
   
9. The Discovery Programme lists Tech Cormaic last in the construction phases at Tara. The problem here is that since it has never been excavated, their assumption can only have been based on the fact that Cormac mac Art reigned from 226 to 266 AD. However, throughout history the names of buildings, streets, towns, cities and even countries have changed depending on, in many cases, the political climate of the time. Raith na Senad, Tech Cormaic, Raith Laoghaire and other monuments at Tara were no different. Tara itself underwent numerous name changes over the millennia; Temair, Druim Leith and Cathair Crofhind.
   
   "Tech Cormaic was the only ringfort at Tara... its outer rampart extended figure-of-eight style to surround and enclose the Forrad." The Discovery Programme Given the historical record, i.e. the carvings on the orthostat, Tech Cormaic was never a ringfort, but a barrow which was incorporated into An Forradh's 6th rampart. Tech Cormaic, An Forradh and Raith na Rig as a whole comprise the ring fort, as evidenced by the palisades erected within their ramparts. (see photo and insert of plan drawing) Moreover, it's highly improbable that Tech Cormaic evolved from the barrow seen on the orthostat, to the multi-vallated ring barrow seen on the topo grad map, to what exists in the landscape today, during the course of Cormac mac Art's reign.
   
   Additionally, one of the four barrows located just below the double court tomb, was also incorporated into An Forradh's 6th rampart. The four barrows form one of two linear barrow cemeteries on the hill. (see Model of Tara, bottom of page) "Component round barrows arranged in a more or less straight line; the average distance between barrows rarely exceeds 100m. One or two auxiliary barrows off the main axis may be considered part of the cemetery." Monuments Protection Programme
   
   
10. "the hill drops away rather more steeply on the east, north and west sides" The Discovery Programme The drop-off explains why Fothadh Graine and Raith Chailchon, as seen on the engraving, are open-sided. That Raith Chailchon's ramparts appear to be continuous, is probably due to the erosion of Raith Graine. (see photos) Also, both monuments are located too close to Raith na Rig, however, this is due to the reasons stated in item 2. Lastly, Raith Chailchon was not a ring barrow, as evidenced by the absence of a mound in the center of the carving, which matches what exists today, as well as the description of Munster Chief Caelchon being "interred in a leacht or carn, beside which was raised the rath in commemoration of him." "the very carn of stones heaped over the grave still remains on the north-east margin of the rath." P.W. Joyce
    
    
11. The single line of monuments seen on the engraving are too close to Raith na Rig, as is the double line of monuments to Raith na Senad. Again, this is due to the reasons stated in item 2. However, their orientation to the other monuments, matches that of the site map.
    
    
12. The name and location of the two mounds west of Raith na Rig, labeled Site of King Cormaic's Watchers on the engraving, (also see Map of Tara and Plan of Tara) are appropriate given the opening in the 6th rampart. These would have provided some defense against an enemy approaching from the north or south.
    
    
13. There are several nondescript "monuments" depicted on the orthostat, which are either berms or naturally occurring flaws in the stone. (see engraving)
    
    
14. One of the monuments seen on the maps, Raith Graine, is conspicuously absent from the orthostat. This is due to one of the following:
    
    a) That it did not exist at the time the stone was carved.
    
    b) That the size of the original stone was unusable in constructing the passage within Duma na nGiall, so the section on which it was carved was either removed or broke off prior to its reuse. One of the two carvings on the right rear orthostat within Duma na nGiall, may be Raith Graine. If so, then the other is likely "a very low-profile barrow to the north-east of Raith Graine" The Discovery Programme
    
    
15. Another monument not seen on the orthostat is Tech Midchuarta. "Conventional dating suggests that passage tombs and cursus monuments are largely coeval. The reason behind our suggestion that Tech Midchuarta is later than Duma na nGiall is that we think that it may have been aligned on the passage tomb." The Discovery Programme In aerial photos of Tara, it appears Tech Midchuarta is aligned with Raith na Senad, not Duma na nGiall. (see photos and geo-survey) However, given the location of the numerous monuments on the hill and its topography, there may have been little choice as to where to construct Tech Midchuarta, therefore, its alignment with either Raith na Senad or Duma na nGiall is likely due to chance, rather than by design. Furthermore, "Access to the interiors of cursus [monuments] was greatly restricted. Entranceways occur most often near one end of the long sides, but may also be found in the centre of the long sides or at the ends." Monuments Protection Programme Tech Midchuarta has 14 entrances; six per side, with one at either end, which means it's been misidentified as being a cursus monument.
    
    As to its purpose, Tech Midchuarta may have been for the raising of livestock, within the protected environment of the enclosure. "few of the ringforts where buildings have been found inside, would be able to survive... with a herd of cattle brought inside" Wikipedia The obvious similarity is to today's barns. "and there was an elaborate subdivision of the inner space, with the compartments railed or partitioned off" P.W. Joyce Though the rest of the description is of a meeting and banqueting hall, it's likely that during the hundreds of years of oral tradition, bards took literary license with its description.
    
    
16. There are two monuments listed in the Metrical Dindshenchas as being below or south of Raith na Rig. The first, which is no longer visible in the landscape, is The Hill of the Ox. Located northeast of Raith Laoghaire, it consists of a ring barrow with an incorporated barrow. "Below from the Rath of the Kings (it is not false) are the Grave of Cu, the Grave of Cethen, the hill of the Ox"  Temair III (23) (see engraving) It has thus far not been detected, as the "geophysical prospection covers only about one-fifth of the core area." The Discovery Programme
    
    The second monument mentioned in the Dindshenchas is Raith Laoghaire "There remains south of the Rath of the King the Rath of Loegaire and his Keep" Temair III (24) The engraving shows that Raith Laoghaire had five ramparts. The opening in the eastern side of the 5th rampart is probably due to a drop-off in that area. As depicted on the orthostat, Raith Laoghaire is smaller than An Forradh, whereas on the site map it's slightly larger. The differences in this case are probably not due to the reasons stated in item 2, rather the two outer ramparts seen in the landscape today, were added after the orthostat was reused in constructing Duma na nGiall. Given An Forradh's importance, it's likely those ramparts were not constructed until after An Forradh's 8th & 9th enclosures were added, i.e. Raith na Rig. At some point, for the reasons stated in item 7, the fosses between the 5th rampart and the center of the monument were infilled. As in the case of Raith na Rig's 2nd rampart, agriculture over the centuries has erased all but a portion of Raith Laoghaire's two remaining ramparts.
    
    
17. "The construction and original use of the tomb [The Mound of the Hostages] has now been radiocarbon dated to 3350 - 3100 BC." from a review by Dr. Elizabeth Twohig of Dr. O'Sullivan's book "Tara, The Mound of the Hostages" However, "The earliest identifiable monument is a postulated [13m timber] enclosure of Neolithic date, part of which was uncovered in pre-tomb levels during excavation of Duma na nGiall and radiocarbon dated to between 3030 - 2190 B.C." "The construction of Duma na nGiall occurred sometime after the enclosure had fallen into disuse or was burned down." The Discovery Programme The obvious issue here is that it's impossible for an older monument to have been constructed atop a more recent one.
    
    The logical explanation of the foregoing is that the 13m enclosure, like the 16m and 25m enclosures, was another of the henge's inner structures, and as in the case of the pre-earthworks activity within the 16m enclosure, the 13m enclosure was also used as a burial site, the remains interred within it, unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall. (Note: the measurements used in the following are for illustration purposes) Taking into consideration the post holes for the henge were over 2m in diameter, its posts would have been nearly that width, and 4m to 5m in length. Therefore, it's likely the enclosure's posts were similar in size. The posts were sunk into the ground 2 meters and extend above ground 2 - 3 meters. When the enclosure was removed, at or just below ground level, the remainder of the posts, down to 1.5 meters, rotted away. The human remains are buried 1 meter deep, so remnants of the posts were naturally unearthed a half a meter below tomb level. In short, all the remains unearthed beneath the tomb and dated to 3350 - 3100 BC, with the last Neolithic burials taking place around 2900 BC, have been incorrectly associated with the construction of Duma na nGiall.
    
    Evidence that other remains have been incorrectly associated with Duma na nGiall, are the Neolithic burials of sixty-three or more individuals in "three cists at the back [rear] of the orthostats... built within the bedding trench that had been cut into the bedrock to receive the orthostats. They were sealed once the covering cairn was built. This appears to indicate what has often been suggested but can rarely be demonstrated, that the tomb chamber initially functioned as free-standing funerary structure before the cairn was built around and above it." from a review by Professor Chris Scarre (Durham University) of Dr. O'Sullivan's book "Tara, The Mound of the Hostages" That "free-standing funerary structure" was the 13m enclosure.
    
    Additionally, "Surrounding the cairn and sometimes located beneath the earthen mantle, the excavators recorded a ring of seventeen bone deposits that, like the earliest dated burials in the tomb, have produced radiocarbon determinations focusing in the period 3350 - 3100 (cal.) BC." from "Tara, The Mound of the Hostages" by Dr. Muiris O'Sullivan While it could be argued that the mantle was added sometime after the last Neolithic burials around 2900 BC, this would have been impossible given that "A ring of fire-pits coinciding spatially with the ring of [seventeen] burials has been radiocarbon dated to more than a millennium later." Dr. Muiris O'Sullivan Obviously, the area where the 13m enclosure once stood was recognized as a sacred burial site, and marked in some manner for the ring of fire pits to coincide spatially with the Neolithic burials a millennia earlier. The fire pits may have been part of a ceremonial offering, prior to the area being used for additional burials.
    
    "what is particularly notable is the apparent lull in activity between the last Neolithic deposits in the tomb chamber (c. 2900 BC) and the renewal of interest in the Early Bronze Age, some six or seven centuries later, [four dates 2281 - 1943 BC] when a dozen or so burials were inserted in the chamber." from the review by Professor Scarre Those burials were not inserted into the chamber, but rather the 13m enclosure. The stone cairn was later erected around the remains, in between those burials and the three cists. As to the 700 year gap between burials, the generations during those intervening years simply used other areas on the hill. (see model of Tara) This solves the mystery as to the "lull in activity" within Duma na nGiall, there simply was none. Therefore, to even date Duma na nGiall to 2281 - 1943 BC, would be problematic.
    
    The only remains that can definitively be assigned to Duma na nGiall, and thus pinpoint its date of construction, are those of the twenty or more individuals (fourteen dates ranging from 2131 - 1533 BC) buried within the clay mound. Passage tombs were in use as late as 2000 BC, so the upper range of the dates falls within that time frame. Based on the evidence, Duma na nGiall was not a tomb, but a monument and astronomical tool, which supports the theory that the term "passage tomb" is a misnomer.
    
    "Ongoing geophysical survey of Tara has recently revealed the existence of a huge henge-like enclosure... The elliptical ground plan of this monument implies the deliberate incorporation of the Mound of the Hostages" Dr. Newman PAST Newsletter #33 (1999) If Duma na nGiall and the henge were contemporary, the henge would have interfered with the alignment of the tomb's passageway to the cross-quarter sunrises. Based on the evidence, the 13m enclosure is the reason why the henge incorporates the area, not Duma na nGiall.
    
    Assuming for the purposes of argument that the remains are correctly associated with Duma na nGiall, and therefore correctly date its construction to 3350 - 3100 BC, this would mean that two highly improbable events occurred.
    
    a) The 13m enclosure was constructed around 3800 - 3700 BC, rather than 3030 - 2190 BC, and was the only monument on the hill for several centuries.
    
    b) The 13m enclosure was only used for ceremonial purposes and that during the centuries it was in use, no artifacts were left behind.
    
    According to Dr. O'Sullivan, there is some evidence of activity in the Early Neolithic Age, based on radiocarbon dates of charcoal found beneath Duma na nGiall, 3800 - 3700 BC, as well as some shards of possible Neolithic pottery and a single Mesolithic chert flake. "If the dates from Tara are of these materials, [a terrestrial reservoir] I would be very confident in the results, as long as short-lived material like seeds or leaves or twigs were selected for dating." Dr. Thomas Higham, Deputy Director, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (RLAHA) It's highly unlikely the local inhabitants built fires consisting solely of seeds, leaves and twigs, especially for cremations. Moreover, "the resulting date measures only the time since the death of a plant and it is up to the archaeologist to record evidence that the death of the organism is directly related to or associated with the human activities". Dr. Richard Morlan, Canadian Archaeological Radiocarbon Database (CARD) There's no indication the charcoal and shards are associated. As for the chert flake, "this single item can hardly be used to indicate that the site was a sacred place" from the review by Dr. Twohig Though the lower range for the remains (3100 BC) and upper range for the 13m enclosure (3030 BC) are in relatively close agreement, there's an obvious issue with the radiocarbon dating of one or both of them.
    
    
18. Errors in radiocarbon dating can be attributed to a host of factors, one of which is the reservoir effect. With regards to the remains unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall, there's no indication this anomaly was ever taken into account. "Both regular and AMS dating were used as appropriate (AMS of necessity for cremated bone, and also for the unburnt bone, to avoid destruction of large quantities of it in advance of any further anatomical research)"  from the review by Dr. Twohig
    
    Living within several kilometers of the Irish Sea, two rivers, the Boyne and the Liffey, and numerous tributaries, the inhabitants of Tara would have had a diet that included fish and other seafood. "Non-terrestrial food, such as fish and shellfish, causes the radiocarbon age of human bone collagen to be too old because of the so-called reservoir effects in water. These reservoir effects can be especially large in river water." J.N. Lanting and J. van der Plicht, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen "for the accurate dating of human bone samples when the possibility exists of an aquatic component in the dietary protein d15N analysis should be undertaken routinely" A freshwater diet-derived 14C reservoir effect. Cook, G.T, Bonsall, C, Hedges, R.E.M, McSweeney, K, Boroneant, V., Pettitt, P.B. "It was once thought that the reservoir effect was about 400 years in all the oceans, but it is now known that the size of the effect varies geographically and through time." Dr. Morlan Moreover, "Human bone may be a problematic medium for dating in some instances due to human consumption of fish, whose C14 label will reflect the ocean reservoir. In such a case, it is very difficult to ascertain the precise reservoir difference and hence apply a correction to the measured radiocarbon age." Dr. Higham
    
    Other factors which can contribute to errors in radiocarbon dating are fractionation, variations in past C14 production rates, distribution of C14 in nature, the old wood effect and artificial and/or natural contamination, such as from soil and groundwater. The remains weren't tested until 2001, over 40 years after the excavation, during which time "some of the paperwork, artefacts and human remains [were] lost, or recovered only as the study advanced" from the review by Dr. Twohig Additionally, Tara sits on a vast limestone plain, surrounded by natural wells and covered with vegetation. "The most common source of contamination by modern carbon is caused by rootlet intrusion. Organic samples such as wood, charcoal... and bone are especially prone to this."  Dr. Higham
    
    
19. Based on the facts presented and the historical record, i.e. the carvings on the orthostat, the following is a brief chronology of Tara.
    
    Phase 1) A timber henge, labeled on the geo-survey as the 7th enclosure, (see item 6) is erected atop the Hill of Tara, along with three or four smaller timber enclosures, which were employed as burial sites.
    
    Phase 2) A second timber henge is erected, that surrounding the Raith na Senad, along with the 13m, 16m and 25m enclosures, which are also used as burial sites.
    
    Phase 3) The henge atop Tara, along with its smaller enclosures, are removed and the oval or ring barrow An Forradh, along with Tech Cormaic and two other barrows are constructed, incorporating the burial sites within the small enclosures.
    
    a) In view of the causeway within its 2nd rampart, it's likely that only ramparts 1 and 2 were initially added to An Forradh, either at the same time or the 2nd at a later date.
    
    b) The four barrows forming the linear barrow cemetery are constructed. These were satellite tombs, so they had to have been constructed after An Forradh, but added prior to its 6th rampart being erected.
    
    c) Over time, ramparts 3 - 6 are added to An Forradh, incorporating two unnamed barrows into ramparts 4 and 5, and Tech Cormaic, along with one of the barrows from the linear barrow cemetery, into its 6th rampart.
    
    Phase 4) The henge surrounding Raith na Senad, along with the 13m, 16m, and 25m enclosures are removed, and the burial sites within the latter two remodeled.
    
    a) The 25m barrow we see today is constructed in place of the 25m enclosure, incorporating one or more burials.
    
    b) The double court tomb is constructed in place of the 16m enclosure, the burial site within incorporated into the forecourt of the northwest facing tomb.
    
    c) The burials within the 13m enclosure are marked with stones.
    
    d) The oval barrow projecting from the southeast facing double court tomb is constructed.
    
    Phase 5) The last of the monuments depicted on the orthostat are constructed, which include Fothadh Graine, Raith Chailchon, Raith Laoghaire, The Hill of the Ox and King Cormaic's Watchers.
    
    Phase 6) The causeway is added to An Forradh, and Tech Cormaic's five ramparts and causeway are constructed.
    
    Phase 7) Tara begins to evolve into the site we see today.
    
    a) The now outdated orthostat is reused in constructing Duma na nGiall where the 13m enclosure once stood.
    
    b) The four ramparts of Raith na Senad are constructed, incorporating the double court tomb, 25m barrow and oval barrow.
    
    Phase 8) The fosses and causeways between the 4th rampart and barrow within An Forradh are infilled, as are the fosses and causeways between Tech Cormaic's 3rd rampart and barrow, and their figure-eight palisaded structures erected. Additionally, the two ramparts composing Raith na Rig are constructed and its palisades erected.
    
    Phase 9) Tech Midchuarta, along with Raith Laoghaire's two additional ramparts are constructed, and the fosses between its 5th rampart and center infilled. (see item 16)
    
    
20. The foregoing evidence lays the foundation for deciphering similarly carved stones, not only in Ireland but England, Scotland, Wales and other parts of Western Europe. One such case are two of the orthostats at Knowth. (see engravings) However, there are several issues which make it difficult to match them with what's in the landscape, the most significant being that, unlike at Tara where the carvings are of a relatively confined site, those at Knowth cover a much larger area. Additionally, there are monuments which likely have been erased from the landscape due to erosion and/or agriculture, monuments that have been discovered which underwent a major remodeling after being depicted on the orthostats, thus making the orthostats obsolete, as well as monuments which have been discovered that were constructed after the orthostats became outdated. (Note: The size of the monuments which cups, rings and other symbols depict, do not have to be on par with a Raith na Rig or Knowth, but depending on their context, i.e. the size of the site, they may have been only a meter in height and width.)
    
    
21. In many instances there are grooves carved around cups and rings. These carvings represent the boundary markers of burial plots, much like what's seen in cemeteries dating back as far as the Roman occupation of Britain, most notably Boscombe Down. "One local trait is the way in which a few graves in all the cemeteries were set within small enclosures, similar to grave gardens or gardens of remembrance." Wessex Archaeology (see photos)
    
    
22. Ogham script consists "almost exclusively of personal names and marks possibly indicating land ownership" Wikipedia Since it was of such importance for the Celtic people of Ireland, as early as the 3rd century AD, to proclaim themselves with their first written language, it's logical it would have been just as important for the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age inhabitants to do so as well, using symbols to depict names and land ownership.
    
    Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth are cemeteries. When you visit any cemetery, be it ancient or modern day, somewhere on the tombs or headstones appear the names of those buried there, perhaps where they were from, along with their dates of birth and dates they died.
    
    a) As to the names, it's likely that many of the carvings found on the kerbstones are an early form of heraldry. Comparing them to Irish Coats of Arms, there are symbols that both share. This parallels the hypotheses by Dr. Katina Lillios in her book "Heraldry for the Dead", though hers deal with symbols found on Neolithic plaques buried with the remains of individuals in southern Portugal and Spain. (see photos)
    
    b) Where they were from might be indicated by carvings of the monuments of their respective provincial kingships.
    
    c) With respect to the dates, they could be depicted in the form of a lunisolar calendar of some type.
    
    That said, in the case of Knowth, the one hundred and twenty-seven kerbstones far outnumber the remains that have been excavated. So too do the ninety-seven kerbstones at Newgrange. However, in light of the fact that Duma na nGiall was constructed atop the remains buried within the 13m enclosure, (see item 17) it's possible there are timber enclosures beneath the clay mantles at Newgrange and Knowth, the identities of the remains within the remnants of those enclosures, corresponding to the kerbstones described above. "Ritual monuments constructed at Newgrange include a timber circle to its south-east. A similar Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age revival can be seen at Knowth. Here a timber circle was placed near the entrance of the eastern tomb. These structures form a remarkable concentration of henge monuments." Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government This raises three issues. First, whether the remains unearthed at Newgrange and Knowth have been, as in the case of Duma na nGiall, incorrectly associated with their dates of construction. Secondly, whether the kerbstones at both sites formed, or were part of, monuments predating the mounds, which would explain why there are carvings on other faces of the stones. Lastly, whether the inner section of the western passage at Knowth was part of an earlier monument, which could explain the peculiar layout of the passageway as a whole.

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