• Raith na Rig
• An Forradh
• Tech Cormaic
• Raith na Senad
• Fothadh Graine
• Raith Chailchon
• Raith Laoghaire
• The monument below Raith Laoghaire, listed on the B & W map as Site of Circle
• The two mounds located west of Raith na Rig, the lower one of which is listed on the B & W map as Site of King Cormaic's Watchers
• The single line of monuments east of Raith na Rig
• The double line of monuments northeast of Raith na Senad

1. The reason the orthostat is not oriented with the monuments, i.e. vertically, is that it was originally a standing stone located somewhere within Raith na Rig. The cup and ring carved on the rear of the orthostat testify to that.
   
   
2. The location of the monuments depicted on the orthostat vary slightly from the site maps, which is due to one or both of the following:
   
   a) The surface area on which to carve the monuments was limited.
   
   b) The carvings were done over a significant period of time, by different artists, with varying degrees of ability as the monuments were constructed. The use of "conventional plan and section drawings" is "a time consuming, highly subjective method that has a low level of accuracy and a high level of error."  The Discovery Programme
   
   
3. In 1952-53 when Professor O'Riordain excavated Raith na Senad, he identified "a series of palisade trenches and post-holes representing concentric enclosures with concentric pairs of free standing posts thought to have been part of a large structure." synopsis of Professor O'Riordain's unpublished excavation, from "Tara, An Archaeological Survey" by Dr. Conor Newman (see plan drawing) An NRA Report states, "At Raith na Senad on the Hill of Tara, the second phase [consisted] of a series of palisaded enclosures c.16m and 25m in diameter" located within a larger enclosure, consisting of a "huge temple, [henge] once surrounded by about 300 huge posts" (see geo-survey and Model of Tara) During this phase "the area was used as a burial ground. Nine burials (six inhumations, both crouched and extended and three cremations) were uncovered"  Dr. Newman
   
   
4. The henge at Tara "probably dates from 2500 to 2300 BC and still had a big physical presence even after the posts were taken out or rotted." Dr. Newman  The reason it still had a big physical presence was because the area remained in use as a burial site.
   
   The shape of Raith na Senad carved on the orthostat, looks different than it does today. Its initial earthen structures consisted of a barrow, an oval barrow and double court tomb. (see engraving) The style of the latter in this case "has a half-court at each end of the monument" "built facing away from each other" "both galleries would have been covered by the same cairn". They "sometimes share the same rear stone"  though in view of the V-shaped gap between the tombs due to silting, that's unlikely. (see photo, top of page) "more often there is some distance between them, ranging from one to ten metres." Megalithomania.com
   
   Excavation of the earthworks activity by Professor O'Riordain revealed "a barrow with traces of an enclosing bank with V-sectioned fosse... situated between ramparts 2 and 3" "The barrow had three phases of construction; the first consisted of a 16m in diameter barrow with surrounding bank and V-sectioned fosse, with associated cremation burials and one later crouched inhumation." Dr. Newman The "barrow" Professor O'Riordain excavated, was actually the forecourt of the northwest facing court tomb which had silted in, leaving "traces of an enclosing bank". Remains of both forecourts are still visible, as well as the "arm" which projects from the southeast facing tomb. (see inserts and overlays)  Considering the shape of the "arm", which is not a feature of court tombs, and as seen on the engraving is not connected to the tomb, it appears to be an oval barrow. "a mound of earth and/or stones of roughly elliptical plan covering or containing one or more human burials and/or other ceremonially placed deposits, sometimes partly or wholly surrounded by a ditch from which the material to build the mound was derived." Monuments Protection Programme
   
   During the 3rd phase of the earthworks activity identified by Professor O'Riordain, a "quadri-vallate enclosure was also constructed"  Dr. Newman  In other words, Raith na Senad evolved into an embanked ring ditch. "A monument comprising an irregularly circular enclosing ditch, interrupted by several causeways, surrounding a central circular area used for funerary activities, often concealed originally beneath an earthen mound." The Discovery Programme (see photos)
   
   "ring ditches... were later used as defence mechanisms" Castles.me.uk Professor O'Riordain discovered a 4th rampart surrounding Raith na Senad, though "nothing of the fourth is visible on the surface" Dr. Newman  That alone would not have offered much in the way of defense, as an enemy would only have had to breach that, before reaching the numerous causeways in ramparts 1-3. Why it did not survive, may be due to the fact that it was no longer important to the overall nature of the site, or was too time consuming to maintain. (see item 9,B) All things considered, it's unlikely the monument ever served as a defensive structure. Professor O'Riordain refers to the area of the double court tomb as the "causeway", however, it's unlike those associated with ring ditches. If this were a new design element, then it stands to reason that it would have been employed in similar monuments. The concave appearance in the middle of the "causeway" is due to the cairn collapsing into the chambers. (see photo, top of page)
   
   Based on "Associated Roman material of second to fourth century date indicates that... [Raith na Senad] is pre-Christian." The Discovery Programme However, there's no evidence the artifacts are associated with its construction. Moreover, Professor O'Riordain unearthed a bronze knife guard in the pre-earthworks period and bronze pins during the earthworks phase. Although bronze was commonly in use during the Early Iron Age, 500 BC, the henge dates to 3030 - 2190 BC, (see item 17) so the bronze artifacts likely date to the Early Bronze Age.
   
   Assuming for the purposes of argument that the henge and associated 16m and 25m enclosures were constructed between 2500 to 2300 BC, that all three fell into disuse and were torn down a few hundred years later and that the ramparts of Raith na Senad are pre-Christian, this would mean that one of two highly improbable scenarios occurred:
   
   a) That roughly 2,000 years later the "16m barrow" was constructed exactly where the 16m enclosure once stood, which by pure coincidence is the exact location of the entrance to the "causeway". That by coincidence the 25m mound within Raith na Senad was constructed in the center of where the 25m enclosure once stood.  Then by chance, the ramparts were constructed where the concentric palisaded structures had stood.  On top of which, all the above just so happened to be built in the center of where the henge was once located.
   
   b) That some physical evidence of the henge's inner structures survived for roughly 2,000 years in the landscape, and were used as a blueprint in constructing Raith na Senad.
   
   The logical explanation is that the 25m enclosure was removed and the mound within enlarged for the purpose of additional burials, resulting in the 25m barrow we see today. Sometime later, the 16m enclosure was removed and the burial site within incorporated into the northwest facing forecourt of the double court tomb. This parallels the discovery at the entrance to Duma na nGiall, where "Two burials, consisting of the cremated remains of some numbers of individuals, were placed in pots outside the passage before the stone cairn was constructed." The Discovery Programme Later still, the oval barrow was constructed. Sometime after the orthostat was reused in the passageway of Duma na nGiall, the outer palisaded structures were removed and the ramparts constructed in their place, incorporating the double court tomb, 25m barrow and oval barrow into Raith na Senad's current design. "At Tara there are at least seven cases where barrows have been incorporated into... later monuments"  The Discovery Programme



5. Given the location of the henge, (see geo-survey) the ring barrow An Forradh could have been constructed prior to the henge falling into disuse and being removed. "Stone circles and standing-stones are usually associated with the Bronze Age and the latter are often found within ring-barrows." Tom Fanning "Ancient Monuments of the Midlands" Just beneath Raith Laoghaire is a stone circle, (see engraving, Map of Tara and Plan of Tara) and located somewhere within Raith na Rig were the standing stones Lia Fail and the orthostat. In view of the causeway within its 2nd rampart, An Forradh's initial construction probably only consisted of the barrow and two ramparts. Although, considering the elongated shape of the mound within An Forradh today, just as it is on the orthostat, it's possible it was originally an oval barrow, with its six ramparts added over time.
   
   As mentioned in item 4, ring ditches were later used as defensive structures. As such, it's logical that a ring barrow would also have been employed in such a manner. Evidence of this are the palisades erected within its two ramparts. (see photo and insert of plan drawing, also item 6,A) The opening in the 6th rampart, like the ramparts of Fothadh Graine and Raith Chailchon, would seem to indicate there was a drop-off in that area. (see engraving and item 10) "Multivallate: more than one layer of defensive earthworks, outer works might not be complete circuits, but defend the weakest approaches; typically the inner circuit is original, with outer circuits added later." Wikipedia
   
   
6. As seen on the engraving, An Forradh consisted of six ramparts. Initially, I identified those as being:
   
   a)  Raith na Rig's two ramparts, as described by Dr. George Petrie in his 1837 essay "On the History and Antiquities of Tara Hill"  and by P.W. Joyce, LL.D. in his book "A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland" Chapter XVI (5) "The circumvallation [of Raith na Rig] can still be traced all round; and consisted originally of two walls or parapets with a deep ditch between." By the time Professor O'Riordain excavated the area, Raith na Rig's inner rampart had been erased from the landscape due to agriculture.
   
   b) An enclosure described by Dr. Newman "A host of other interesting features has also come to light, such as the continuation (near the south end of the surveyed area) of a previously identified enclosure which, if projected, appears to surround the Forradh and Tech Cormaic, and also reflects the curvature of Raith na Rig."  PAST Newsletter #33 (1999) (see geo-survey and Model of Tara)
   
   c)  An Forradh's two existing ramparts.
   
   d)  An enclosure concealed within An Forradh's mound.
   
   The foregoing would seem to account for all six ramparts. However, based on a recently obtained topographical gradient map, (courtesy of The Discovery Programme) An Forradh originally consisted not of two ramparts and a barrow, but six ramparts and a barrow. (see insert of insert of engraving and topo grad map) (Note: interpretation of the image is solely the work of the author) The evidence shows that the fosses between An Forradh's 4th rampart and barrow were infilled. As such, Raith na Rig's ramparts and the enclosure seen on the geo-survey are actually enclosures 7, 8 and 9. Given the evidence, which in all fairness to Dr. Petrie he was unaware of in 1837 when he identified the monuments at Tara, Raith na Rig may in fact be the 6th rampart seen on the engraving and topo grad map i.e. An Forradh's outer rampart.
   
   
7. During his excavation, Professor O'Riordain revealed a ditch within Raith na Rig "Reaching a depth of up to 3m and with the underlying bedrock stepped, it challenges the generally accepted non-defensive nature of "Royal Sites" with their internal ditches." PAST Newsletter #28 (1998) Helen Roche, Director Tara Project  Based on the evidence cited in items 5 & 6, the two ramparts and palisaded enclosures are what challenge the "non-defensive nature" of the monument. The ditch was nothing more than the V-sectioned fosse between Raith na Rig's ramparts.
   
   "The earliest recognised evidence (O'Riordain's black layer), was found and confirmed to be sealed beneath the bank of the enclosure. Excavation revealed that the source of this black, charcoal-rich layer was debris from a bowl furnace. Throughout the layer and especially around the immediate area of the furnace, quantities of iron slag, tuyre and crucible fragments, some with bronze residue, bronze stems and droplets, were recovered, as well as small iron objects" Helen Roche "Therefore, the bank was, it seems, constructed sometime after the introduction of iron." The Discovery Programme The fact that both bronze and iron debris were found, begs the question, why was Raith na Rig dated to the Iron Age, and not the Bronze Age?
   
   a) The same furnace, or at least the same area, would have been used for making both metals.
   
   b) After a decade or two of silting, which covered the bronze detritus with several inches of soil, the rampart would be in need of repair, so the soil would have been dragged back onto the embankment.
   
   c) The above cycle would have been repeated during the time the furnace, or area, was used for making iron, only this time the silt would also contain bronze detritus. At that point, when the rampart was repaired, both the bronze and iron debris would have been mixed together.
   
   As mentioned in item 4, while bronze was still in use during the Early Iron Age, in view of the foregoing, the bronze detritus could just as easily date to the Early or Middle Bronze Age.
   
   
8. The Discovery Programme lists Tech Cormaic last in the construction phases at Tara.  The problem here is that since the monument has never been excavated, their assumption can only have been based on the fact that Cormac mac Art reigned from 254 to 277 AD. However, throughout history the names of buildings, streets, towns, cities and countries have changed depending on, in many cases, the political climate of the time. Raith na Senad, Tech Cormaic, Raith Laoghaire and other monuments at Tara are no different. Tara itself underwent numerous name changes over the millennia; Temair, Druim Leith and Cathair Crofhind to name a few.
   
   "Tech Cormaic was the only ringfort at Tara... its outer rampart extended figure-of-eight style to surround and enclose the Forrad." The Discovery Programme Given the historical record, i.e. the carvings on the orthostat, Tech Cormaic was originally not a ringfort, but a barrow which was incorporated into An Forradh's 6th rampart. Tech Cormaic, An Forradh and Raith na Rig as a whole comprise the ring fort, as evidenced by the palisades erected within the ramparts of all three monuments. (see photo and insert of plan drawing) Moreover, it's highly improbable that Tech Cormaic evolved from the barrow seen on the orthostat, to the multi-vallated ring barrow seen on the topo grad map, to what exists in the landscape today, during the course of Cormac mac Art's reign.
   
   Additionally, one of the four barrows located just below the double court tomb, was also incorporated into An Forradh's 6th rampart. The four barrows form a linear barrow cemetery. There is evidence of another linear barrow cemetery at Tara. (see Model of Tara, bottom of page) "Component round barrows arranged in a more or less straight line; the average distance between barrows rarely exceeds 100m. One or two auxiliary barrows off the main axis may be considered part of the cemetery."  Monuments Protection Programme



9. Why the monuments within Raith na Rig evolved into what we see today, is due to one or both of the following:
   
   a) "This emphasis on status in the function of the ringfort, over that of defense would explain a number of defensive weaknesses of the ringfort. Banks, or multiples of them would not appear to offer the best return to their builders for their defensive value" such as "the general lack of an ability to fight out from the ringforts" Wikipedia  Having discovered this, An Forradh and Tech Cormaic underwent a major remodeling. (see topo grad map, also photo and insert of plan drawing)
   
   b) That the time and man power necessary to maintain that many ramparts would have been enormous. "little effort would appear to have been expended on up keeping the ditches and fosses in order to prevent decay and silting" Wikipedia



10. "the hill drops away rather more steeply on the east, north and west sides" The Discovery Programme The drop-off explains why Fothadh Graine and Raith Chailchon, as seen on the engraving, are open-sided. That Raith Chailchon's ramparts appear to be continuous, is probably the result of the construction of and silting from Raith Graine. (see photos) Also, both monuments are located too close to Raith na Rig, however, this is due to the reasons stated in item 2. Lastly, Raith Chailchon was not a ring barrow, as evidenced by the absence of a mound in the center of the carving, which matches what exists today, as well as the description of Munster Chief Caelchon being "interred in a leacht or carn, beside which was raised the rath in commemoration of him." "the very carn of stones heaped over the grave still remains on the north-east margin of the rath." P.W. Joyce
    
    
11. The single line of monuments seen on the engraving are too close to Raith na Rig, as is the double line of monuments to Raith na Senad. Again, this is due to the reasons stated in item 2. However, their orientation to the other monuments, matches that of the site map.
    
    
12. The name and location of the two mounds west of Raith na Rig, labeled Site of King Cormaic's Watchers on the engraving, (also see Map of Tara and Plan of Tara) are appropriate given the opening in the 6th rampart. These would have provided some defense against an enemy approaching from the north or south.
    
    
13. There are several nondescript "monuments" depicted on the orthostat, which are either berms or naturally occurring flaws in the stone.
    
    
14. One of the monuments seen on the maps, Raith Graine, is conspicuously absent from the orthostat. This is due to one of the following:
    
    a) That it did not exist at the time the stone was carved.
    
    b) That the size of the original stone was unusable in constructing the passage within Duma na nGiall, so the section on which it was carved was removed, or perhaps broke off prior to its reuse. One of the two carvings on the right rear orthostat within Duma na nGiall, may be Raith Graine. If so, then the other is likely "a very low-profile barrow to the north-east of Raith Graine" The Discovery Programme
    
    
15. There are two monuments listed in the Metrical Dindshenchas as being below or south of Raith na Rig. The first, which is no longer visible in the landscape, is The Hill of the Ox. Located northeast of Raith Laoghaire, it consists of a ring barrow with an incorporated barrow. "Below from the Rath of the Kings (it is not false) are the Grave of Cu, the Grave of Cethen, the hill of the Ox"  Temair III (23) (see engraving) It has thus far not been detected, as the "geophysical prospection covers only about one-fifth of the core area." The Discovery Programme
    
    The second monument mentioned in the Dindshenchas is Raith Laoghaire "There remains south of the Rath of the King the Rath of Loegaire and his Keep" Temair III (24) The engraving shows that Raith Laoghaire had five ramparts.  The opening in the eastern side of the 5th rampart is probably due to a drop-off in that area. As depicted on the orthostat, Raith Laoghaire is smaller than An Forradh, whereas on the site map it's slightly larger. The differences in this case are probably not due to the reasons stated in item 2, rather the two outer ramparts seen in the landscape today, were added after the orthostat was reused in constructing Duma na nGiall. Given An Forradh's importance, it's likely those ramparts were not constructed until after An Forradh's 8th & 9th enclosures, i.e. Raith na Rig, were added. At some point, for the reasons stated in item 9, the fosses between the 5th rampart and the center of the monument were infilled. As in the case of Raith na Rig's 2nd rampart, agriculture over the centuries has erased all but a portion of Raith Laoghaire's two remaining ramparts. Lastly, the raith was not a ring barrow, as there's no mound depicted in the center of the carving.
    
    
16. "Conventional dating suggests that passage tombs and cursus monuments are largely coeval. The reason behind our suggestion that Tech Midchuarta is later than Duma na nGiall is that we think that it may have been aligned on the passage tomb."  The Discovery Programme In aerial photos of Tara, it appears Tech Midchuarta is aligned with Raith na Senad, not Duma na nGiall. (see photos and geo-survey) However, given the location of the numerous monuments on the hill and its topography, there may have been little choice as to where to construct Tech Midchuarta, therefore, its alignment with either Raith na Senad or Duma na nGiall is likely due to chance, rather than by design. Furthermore, "Access to the interiors of cursus [monuments] was greatly restricted. Entranceways occur most often near one end of the long sides, but may also be found in the centre of the long sides or at the ends." Monuments Protection Programme Tech Midchuarta has 14 entrances; six per side, with one at either end, which means it's been misidentified as being a cursus monument.
    
    As to its purpose, Tech Midchuarta may have been for the raising of livestock, within the protected environment of the enclosure. "few of the ringforts where buildings have been found inside, would be able to survive... with a herd of cattle brought inside" Wikipedia The obvious similarity is to today's barns. "and there was an elaborate subdivision of the inner space, with the compartments railed or partitioned off" P.W. Joyce Though the rest of the description is of a meeting and banqueting hall, it's likely that during the hundreds of years of oral tradition, the seanachies took literary license with the description.
    
    
17. "The construction and original use of the tomb [The Mound of the Hostages] has now been radiocarbon dated to 3350 - 3100 BC." from a review by Dr. Elizabeth Twohig of Dr. O'Sullivan's book "Tara, The Mound of the Hostages" However, "The earliest identifiable monument is a postulated [13m timber] enclosure of Neolithic date, part of which was uncovered in pre-tomb levels during excavation of Duma na nGiall and radiocarbon dated to between 3030 - 2190 B.C." "The construction of Duma na nGiall occurred sometime after the enclosure had fallen into disuse or was burned down." The Discovery Programme
    
    The foregoing scenario is impossible, for the simple reason that an older monument cannot have been constructed atop a more recent one. The logical explanation is that the 13m enclosure, like the 16m and 25m enclosures, was another of the henge's inner structures, giving a time frame for the construction of the henge as 3030 - 2190 BC. Additionally, as in the case of the pre-earthworks activity discussed in item 3, the 13m enclosure was used as a burial site, the remains interred within it, unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall.
    
    Taking into consideration the post holes for the henge were over 2m in diameter, their width would have been nearly that and 4m to 5m in length. Therefore, it's likely the posts of the enclosure would have been similar size. (Note: the measurements used in the following are for illustration purposes) The posts are sunk into the ground 2 meters and extend above ground by 3 meters.  When the enclosure is removed, at or below ground level, the remains of the posts, down to 1.5 meters rot away. The human remains are buried 1 meter deep, so remnants of the posts are naturally unearthed a half a meter below tomb level. As such, a large percentage of the remains unearthed beneath the mound, and dated to 3350 - 3100 BC, with the last Neolithic burials taking place around 2900 BC, have been incorrectly associated with the construction of Duma na nGiall.
    
    Further evidence that the remains have been incorrectly associated with Duma na nGiall, is that the Neolithic burials of sixty-three or more individuals did not occur within the chamber, but rather in "three cists at the back [rear] of the orthostats... built within the bedding trench that had been cut into the bedrock to receive the orthostats. They were sealed once the covering cairn was built. This appears to indicate what has often been suggested but can rarely be demonstrated, that the tomb chamber initially functioned as free-standing funerary structure before the cairn was built around and above it." from a review by Professor Chris Scarre (Durham University) of Dr. O'Sullivan's book "Tara, The Mound of the Hostages" That freestanding structure was the 13m enclosure. Additionally, "Surrounding the cairn, and sometimes located beneath the margins of the earthen mantle, the excavators recorded a ring of seventeen bone deposit, that, like the earliest dated burials in the tomb, have produced radiocarbon determinations focused on the period 3350 - 3100 (cal.) BC."  While it could be argued that the mantle was added sometime after the last Neolithic burials around 2900 BC, this would have been impossible given that "A ring of fire-pits coinciding spatially with the ring of [seventeen] burials has been dated by radiocarbon to more than a millennium later."  UCD News (March 2006) That leaves the question as to whether the cairn might have been constructed between 3350 - 3100 BC, however, this too would have been impossible for the following reasons:
    
    A)  If the cairn and the henge were contemporary, the henge would have interfered with the alignment of the cairn's passageway to the cross-quarter sunrises.
    
    B) If the cairn and the earthen monuments depicted on the orthostat were contemporary, the carvings would have been oriented to the site, i.e. vertically, and the cairn would have been depicted.
    
    "what is particularly notable is the apparent lull in activity between the last Neolithic deposits in the tomb chamber (c. 2900 BC) and the renewal of interest in the Early Bronze Age, some six or seven centuries later, [four dates 2281 - 1943 BC] when a dozen or so burials were inserted in the chamber." from the review by Professor Scarre  These burials could be associated with the construction of Duma na nGiall. However, the area where the 13m enclosure once stood was obviously recognized as a sacred burial site, and would have to have been marked in some manner for the ring of fire pits to have coincided spatially with the Neolithic burials a millennia earlier.  As such, the orthostats were likely erected around the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age remains unearthed beneath the chamber, between the three cists and ring of seventeen Neolithic bone deposits and Bronze Age fire pits. Therefore, to date Duma na nGiall to 2281 - 1943 BC, would be problematic.
    
    The only remains that can definitively be assigned to Duma na nGiall, and thus pinpoint its date of construction, are those of the twenty or more individuals (fourteen dates ranging from 2131 - 1533 BC) buried within the clay mound. Passage tombs were in use as late as 2000 BC, so the upper range of the dates falls within that time frame. This solves the mystery as to the "lull in activity" within Duma na nGiall from roughly 2900 to 2200 BC, there simply was none.
    
    "Ongoing geophysical survey of Tara has recently revealed the existence of a huge henge-like enclosure... The elliptical ground plan of this monument implies the deliberate incorporation of the Mound of the Hostages" Dr. Newman PAST Newsletter #33 (1999) Based on the evidence, the 13m enclosure is the reason why the henge incorporates the area, not Duma na nGiall.
    
    Assuming for the purposes of argument that the remains are correctly associated with Duma na nGiall, and therefore correctly date its construction to 3350 - 3100 BC, this would mean that two highly improbable events occurred:
    
    a) The 13m enclosure was constructed around 3800 - 3700 BC, rather than 3030 - 2190 BC, and was the only monument on the hill for several centuries.
    
    b) The 13m enclosure was used only for ceremonial purposes and that during the centuries it was in use, no artifacts were left behind.
    
    According to Dr. O'Sullivan, there is some evidence of activity in the Early Neolithic Age, based on radiocarbon dates of charcoal found beneath Duma na nGiall, 3800 - 3700 BC, as well as some shards of possible Neolithic pottery and a single Mesolithic chert flake. "If the dates from Tara are of these materials, [a terrestrial reservoir] I would be very confident in the results, as long as short-lived material like seeds or leaves or twigs were selected for dating." Dr. Thomas Higham, Deputy Director, Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (RLAHA) It's highly unlikely the inhabitants of Tara built fires consisting solely of seeds, leaves and twigs. Moreover, "the resulting date measures only the time since the death of a plant and it is up to the archaeologist to record evidence that the death of the organism is directly related to or associated with the human activities" Dr. Richard Morlan, the Canadian Archaeological Radiocarbon Database (CARD) There's no indication the charcoal and shards are associated. As for the chert flake, "this single item can hardly be used to indicate that the site was a sacred place" from the review by Dr. Twohig Though the lower range for the remains (3100 BC) and upper range for the 13m enclosure (3030 BC) are in relatively close agreement, there's an obvious issue with the radiocarbon dating of one or both of them.



18. Errors in radiocarbon dating can be attributed to a host of factors, one of which is the reservoir effect. With regards to the remains unearthed beneath Duma na nGiall, there's no indication this anomaly was ever taken into account. "Both regular and AMS dating were used as appropriate (AMS of necessity for cremated bone, and also for the unburnt bone, to avoid destruction of large quantities of it in advance of any further anatomical research)"  from the review by Dr. Twohig
    
    Living within several kilometers of the Irish Sea, two rivers, the Boyne and the Liffey, and numerous tributaries, the inhabitants of Tara would have had a diet that included fish and other seafood. "Non-terrestrial food, such as fish and shellfish, causes the radiocarbon age of human bone collagen to be too old because of the so-called reservoir effects in water. These reservoir effects can be especially large in river water." J.N. Lanting and J. van der Plicht, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen "for the accurate dating of human bone samples when the possibility exists of an aquatic component in the dietary protein d15N analysis should be undertaken routinely" A freshwater diet-derived 14C reservoir effect. Cook, G.T, Bonsall, C, Hedges, R.E.M, McSweeney, K, Boroneant, V., Pettitt, P.B. "It was once thought that the reservoir effect was about 400 years in all the oceans, but it is now known that the size of the effect varies geographically and through time." Dr. Morlan  Moreover, "Human bone may be a problematic medium for dating in some instances due to human consumption of fish, whose C14 label will reflect the ocean reservoir. In such a case, it is very difficult to ascertain the precise reservoir difference and hence apply a correction to the measured radiocarbon age."  Dr. Higham
    
    Other factors which can contribute to errors in radiocarbon dating are fractionation, variations in past C14 production rates, distribution of C14 in nature, the old wood effect and artificial and/or natural contamination, such as from soil and groundwater. The remains weren't tested until 2001, over 40 years after the excavation, during which time "some of the paperwork, artefacts and human remains [were] lost, or recovered only as the study advanced"  from the review by Dr. Twohig Additionally, Tara sits on a vast limestone plain, surrounded by natural wells and covered with vegetation. "The most common source of contamination by modern carbon is caused by rootlet intrusion. Organic samples such as wood, charcoal... and bone are especially prone to this."  Dr. Higham
    
    
19. Based on the facts presented and the historical record, i.e. the carvings on the orthostat, the following is a brief chronology of Tara:
    
    Phase 1) The timber henge along with the 13m, 16m and 25m timber enclosures are erected.
    
    In looking at the geo-survey, one has to wonder why the henge wasn't built on top of the hill. Most likely the area it was built in, was open level space, whereas the hill, like Raith Maeve and Raith Lugh appear today, was covered with trees and other vegetation.
    
    Phase 2)  The hill is cleared and leveled, and the ring barrow, or perhaps oval barrow, An Forradh is constructed.
    
    Phase 3) Over time, the henge along with the 13m, 16m, and 25m enclosures are removed and the burial sites within the latter two are remodeled.
    
    a) The 25m enclosure is removed and the mound within enlarged, perhaps to accommodate additional burials, resulting in the 25m barrow we see today.
    
    b) The 16m enclosure is removed and the double court tomb constructed to provide additional burial space.  The burial site within the enclosure is incorporated into the forecourt of the northwest facing tomb.
    
    c) The 13m enclosure is removed and marked with stones, or a stone, such as the Lia Fail.
    
    d) The oval barrow projecting from the southeast facing forecourt of the double court tomb is added.
    
    Phase 4) The barrow, which we know today as Tech Cormaic, and the four barrows forming the linear barrow cemetery are constructed. These were satellite tombs, so they had to have been constructed after An Forradh, but added prior to its auxiliary ramparts being built.
    
    Phase 5) Ramparts 3 - 6 are added to An Forradh, incorporating the barrow Tech Cormaic and one of the barrows from the linear barrow cemetery into the 6th rampart.
    
    Phase 6) The last of the monuments depicted on the orthostat are constructed, which include Fothadh Graine, Raith Chailchon, Raith Laoghaire, The Hill of the Ox and King Cormaic's Watchers.
    
    Phase 7) Tara begins to evolve into the site we see today.
    
    a) The 7th enclosure is constructed.
    
    b) The four ramparts of Raith na Senad are constructed, incorporating the double court tomb, 25m barrow and oval barrow.
    
    c) The now outdated orthostat is reused in constructing Duma na nGiall where the 13m enclosure once stood.
    
    Phase 8) An Forradh's 7th enclosure is removed, the 8th and 9th ramparts which compose Raith na Rig are constructed, as well as Tech Cormaic's five ramparts.
    
    Phase 9) The fosses between the 4th rampart and barrow within An Forradh are infilled, as are the fosses between Tech Cormaic's 3rd rampart and barrow. Their figure-eight palisaded structures are also erected, along with the palisades of Raith na Rig.
    
    Phase 10) Tech Midchuarta, along with Raith Laoghaire's two additional ramparts are constructed, and the fosses between its 5th rampart and center infilled. (see item 15, para. 2)
    
    
    Theories abound as to the meaning of the symbols on kerbstones, orthostats and standing stones, yet no one has been able to apply those theories in deciphering them. The problem is that each theory assigns one definition per symbol, ignoring the fact that they're likely to have multiple meanings, depending on the context, just as words do in our language today.  This would be particularly true given the limited number of symbols. For the most part, they've been interpreted as representing celestial bodies, events or patterns, however, as the evidence has demonstrated, it's just as logical that they also represent terrestrial objects.
    
    
20. Ogham script consists "almost exclusively of personal names and marks possibly indicating land ownership" Wikipedia Since it was of such importance for the early Celtic people in Ireland to proclaim themselves with their first written language, it's logical it would have been just as important for the Neolithic and Bronze Age inhabitants to do so as well, using symbols.
    
    Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth are cemeteries. When you visit any cemetery, be it ancient or current day, somewhere on the tombs or headstones appear the names of those buried there, perhaps where they were from, which considering these were royal burial sites, the kingships they ruled, along with their birth dates and dates they died.
    
    a) It's likely that many of the carvings found on the kerbstones are an early form of heraldry. Comparing them to Irish family crests, there are symbols that both share.
    
    b) As to where they were from, that might be indicated by carvings of their respective kingships, i.e. a map of their monuments.
    
    c) With respect to the dates, they could be depicted in the form of a lunisolar calendar of some type.
    
    
21. Two of the carved orthostats at Knowth also appear to be maps, though I've been unable to determine whether they're of the surrounding area, as I don't have access to any comprehensive maps of other monuments in the vicinity. (see engravings)
    

Resources

• PDF Download of this paper.
• Short Film based on this paper.
  

Copyright